LEOPARD

Historically, many leopard subspecies were recognized based on geographical distribution and physical characteristics. However, with advancements in genetic studies, 8 sub-species of leopards have been identified:

• Panthera pardus pardus – Africa
• Panthera pardus tulliana – South West Asia (Turkey, Caucasus, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan and Pakistan)
• Panthera pardus fusca – Indian subcontinent, Myanmar and China
• Panthera pardus kotiya-Sri Lanka
• Panthera pardus delacouri – SE Asia and probably south China
• Panthera pardus orientalis – Eastern Asia from Russian Far East to China
• Panthera pardus melas –Java
• Panthera pardus nimr –Arabian peninsula

Fossil evidence indicates that leopards originated in Africa, and they were present in Eurasia during the Early Pleistocene. However, DNA analysis suggests a more recent shared ancestry of Asian and African leopards, dating back to the Middle Pleistocene. The ancient European leopard is considered a sister group to Asian leopards, indicating a common out-of-Africa dispersal that led to the formation of Asian lineages. Mitochondrial lineage coalescence aligns with the earliest confirmed fossils in Eurasia. Mainland Asian leopards show a relatively recent ancestry, implying a significant population bottleneck during the Pleistocene.

Male leopards typically weigh between 37 to 90 kg (82 to 198 lb), while females weigh around 28 to 60 kg (62 to 132 lb). Their body length ranges from 91 to 1,91 cm (3.0 to 6.3 ft), with a tail length of 58 to 1,10 cm (1.9 to 3.6 ft). The leopards' coats vary, featuring bodies adorned with rosettes—small black spots surrounding a central spot slightly darker than the background color. The background color itself can be pale cream, buff-gray, orangish, tawny-brown, or dark rufous. This spotted pattern provides excellent camouflage in their natural habitats, helping them ambush prey.

Reliable and scientific population estimate of leopard over the continent of Africa is not available till date but the available resources point towards the following figures:

• 700,000+ in Africa (Henschel et al. 2008)
• 13,874 in India (Qureshi et al. 2024)
• Amur leopard – <60 (IUCN CSG)
• Arabian leopard – 45-200 (IUCN CSG)
• Javan leopard – <250 (IUCN CSG)
• Persian leopard – 800-1000 (IUCN CSG)
• Sri Lankan leopard – 700-950 (IUCN CSG)
• North China leopard – <500 (IUCN CSG)
• South-east Asia – <2,500 (IUCN CSG)

The leopard boasts a broad geographic range, spanning across Africa and Asia. From sub-Saharan Africa, the Arabic peninsula, and southwestern and eastern Turkey, it extends through southwest Asia, the Caucasus, up to the Himalayas, South Asia, Indochina, Peninsular Malaysia, China, and the Russian Far East. Additionally, leopards are found on the islands of Java and Sri Lanka.

Leopards are highly adaptable, thriving in diverse ecosystems from tropical rainforests to alpine regions, encompassing habitats such as savannahs, deserts, and Mediterranean scrub. In the Indian subcontinent, they inhabit forests, tea gardens, and rocky landscapes, while in southwest and central Asia, they are primarily found in remote mountainous areas and rugged foothill regions. Remarkably, leopards have been recorded at elevations up to 5200 m in the Himalayas, showcasing their versatility in varied landscapes.

Both males and females reach sexual maturity between 24 and 28 months, with reproduction typically uncommon before 33 to 36 months of age.

Leopards are predominantly nocturnal, frequently hunting and traveling during the night, while resting on the ground under cover or in trees. Human activity may impact their activity patterns. Typically solitary, leopards rarely interact except for mating or raising cubs. They establish and defend territories marked with urine and claw marks on tree bark, and male leopards may engage in territorial disputes if their ranges overlap.

Leopards have an extensive diet, consuming over 90 different prey species in sub-Saharan Africa alone. They primarily target large to medium-sized ungulates but are known to commonly prey on primates in certain African regions. Additionally, they frequently scavenge for food.

The leopard, listed under CITES Appendix I, is widely protected, with hunting prohibited or restricted in several nations like Armenia, Georgia, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Pakistan, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. International trade is limited to an annual quota for sport hunting skins and trophies. However, legal safeguards are absent in Lebanon, Tunisia, Turkey, and the United Arab Emirates. Information gaps persist for countries like Azerbaijan, Iraq, Libya, Kuwait, Syria, Tajikistan, and Yemen. Afghanistan recently protected leopards by adding them to the nation's Protected Species List. Across the globe, all leopard subspecies face threats, especially those outside Africa. The Amur Leopard, found in eastern Russia, is alarmingly scarce, with an estimated wild population of around 30 individuals.

Major threats include:

• Habitat loss and fragmentation
• Persecution with humans
• Poisoning of carcasses
• Illegal trophy hunting
• Demand for illegal body parts
• Other anthropogenic factors such as road and rail kills, electrocution etc.